CARLOS - THE TIGER OF CATALONIA
Carlos of Spain, Comminges , of Couserans and Foix ( Ramefort Castle , August 15 of 1775 - Organa , February 2 of 1839 ), was a nobleman and military honor in the service of Spain , Espagne Marquis and Baron Ramefort in France, Grandee of Spain and Count of Spain in this country. He distinguished himself in the War of Independence and the service of King Ferdinand VII during the absolutist restoration .
Born Roger-Bernard-Charles d'Espagne of Ramefort, was the son of the Marquis Henri de Espagne, seneschal of colonel and Comminges-Nébouzan Couserans. A descendant of the Counts sovereign Cominges , viscounts and earls of Pallars Couserans patrilineal, and sovereign Counts of Foix matrilineal. In 1791 , the family fled the revolutionary terror , settling in Palma de Mallorca in 1793 . In 1792 Carlos de Espagne seated place in the Spanish army, which would usually. He participated in the battles of Bailen and Arapiles .
At the entrance of the allies in Madrid (August 1812 ) was appointed governor of the place, and then also participated in the Battle of Vitoria , in blocking Pamplona (where it would hurt) and Sorauren battle between other. After the war, he refused to return to his country and stood staunchly beside Fernando VII to suppress liberalism. King españolizó his surname, given the title of Count of Spain, Grandee of Spain, and the title of Viscount Couserans. He became captain general of Catalonia , establishing a real reign of terror from his headquarters in the Citadel of Barcelona , fortification hated by the locals because it symbolized the repression of secular rights. His cruelty in the government of the Principality made her known as the Tiger of Catalonia.
Later he sided with the pretender Carlos María Isidro de Borbón during the First Carlist War , dying assassinated near Organa , in Bridge Spy, by his own bodyguard and according to the instructions of the principal leaders in Catalonia Carlist little before the Convention of Vergara . His body, especially his face was disfigured and released with a millstone around the neck of the river Segre.
Carlos of Spain (Ramefort Castle, August 15 of 1775 - Organyà , February 2 of 1839 ) was a nobleman and military French in the service of Spain , Marquis d'Espagne and Baron Ramefort France, Great of Spain and Count of Spain in this country. Ultrarreaccionario, distinguished himself in the War of Independence and the service of King Ferdinand VII during the absolutist restoration .
Life
Born Roger-Bernard-de Charles d'Espagne Ramefort, the son of the Marquis Henri d'Espagne, seneschal of colonel and Couserans-Comminges-Nébouzan. Descendant of the earls and viscounts of Couserans Pallars line for parents, and the Counts of Foix matrilineal. In 1791 , the family fled revolutionary terror , installing to Palma de Mallorca in 1793 . In 1792 Charles d'Espagne seated place in the Spanish Army, which arrived in general. He participated in the battles of Bailen and Arapiles .
At the entrance of the allies in Madrid (August 1812 ) was named governor of the place, and then he also participated in the Battle of Vitoria in the blockade of Pamplona (where wounded) and the Battle of Sorauren , among others.
At the end of the war, refused to return to their country unconditionally and stood alongside Fernando VII to suppress liberalism. King españolizó his name, he was awarded the title of Earl of Spain, Greatness of Spain, and the title of Viscount Couserans. He was captain general of Catalonia, establishing a real reign of terror from its headquarters in the Citadel of Barcelona, fortification of record in the city so ungrateful. His ruthlessness earned him known as El Tigre Catalonia.
Later he sided with the pretender Carlos María Isidro de Borbón during the First Carlist War , dying killed near Organyà In Bridge of Spies, shortly before the Convention of Vergara. They say the old site that was buried in the town, and when the family claimed, was delivered of a villager (such was the hatred for this character that the town priest Framed the family).
Carlos of Spain
Carlos of Spain ( Castle of Ramefort, 15 of August of 1775 - Organyà, 2 of February of 1839 ) was Noble and French Military man to the service of Spain, Marquess of Espagne and baron of Ramefort in France, Great of Spain and count of Spain in this country. Ultrareaccionario, distinguished in War of Independence and to the service of the king Fernando VII, during absolutist restoration .
Life
Been born Roger-Bernard-Char to them d'Espagne from Ramefort, was son of Marquess Henri de Espagne, colonel and senescal of Couserans-Comminges-Nébouzan. Descendant of vizcondes of Couserans and counts of Pallars by paternal line, and of counts of Foix by maternal line. In 1791, the family fled from revolutionary terror, settling in Palma de Mallorca in 1793 . In 1792 Carlos de Espagne seated place in the Spanish Army, in which it would arrive at general. It participated in the battles of Bailén and Arapiles .
To the entrance of the allies in Madrid (August of 1812 ) was named governor of the place, and later participated also in Batalla de Vitoria, in the blockade of Pamplona (in which it would be wounded) and in Batalla de Sorauren, among others.
When finishing the war, refused to return to its country and Fernando VII put itself unconditionally next to to repress liberalism. The King hispanicized his last name, granted the title to him of Count of Spain, with Greatness of Spain, and the title of vizconde of Couserans. got to be Commander in chief of Catalonia, restoring an authentic regime of terror from its headquarters in Citadel of Barcelona, fortification of so ungrateful memory in this city. Its cruelty was worth to him to be known like the Tiger of Catalonia .
More ahead Maria Isidro de Borbón put itself of the side of pretending Carlos during First Carlista War, dying assassinated near Organyà, in the Bridge of Spy, shortly before the Agreement of Vergara. They say the old women of the place that was buried in this population and, when it demanded it to the family, was given the one to him of a neighbor of the town (such era hatred towards this personage that the priest of the town deceived the family).
Spain in the 19th century was a country in turmoil. Occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, a massively destructive "war of independence" ensued, driven by an emergent Spanish nationalism. An era of reaction against the liberal ideas associated with revolutionary France followed the war, personified by the rule of Ferdinand VII and - to a lesser extent - his daughter Isabella II. Ferdinand's rule included the loss of the Spanish colonies in the New World, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico, in the 1810s and 1820s. A series of civil wars then broke out in Spain, pitting Spanish liberals and then republicans against conservatives, culminating in the Carlist Wars between the moderate Queen Isabella and her uncle, the reactionary Infante Carlos. Disaffection with Isabella's government from many quarters led to repeated military intervention in political affairs and to several revolutionary attempts against the government. Two of these revolutions were successful,the moderate Vicalvarada or "Vicálvaro Revolution" of 1854 and the more radical la Gloriosa (Glorious Revolution) in 1868. The latter marks the end of Isabella's monarchy. The brief rule of the liberal king Amadeo I of Spain ended in the establishment of the First Spanish Republic, only to be replaced in 1874 by the popular, moderate rule of Alfonso XII of Spain, which finally brought Spain into a period of stability and reform.
Main article: Junta (Peninsular War)
King Ferdinand VII's refusal to agree to the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 on his accession to the throne in 1814 came as little surprise to most Spaniards; the king had signed on to agreements with the clergy, the church, and with the nobility in his country to return to the earlier state of affairs even before the fall of Napoleon. The decision to abrogate the Constitution was not welcomed by all, however. Liberals in Spain felt betrayed by the king who they had decided to support, and many of the local juntas that had pronounced against the rule of Joseph Bonaparte lost confidence in the king's rule. The army, which had backed the pronouncements, had liberal leanings that made the king's position tenuous. Even so, agreements made at the Congress of Vienna (where Spain was represented by Pedro Gómez Labrador, Marquis of Labrador) starting a year later would cement international support for the old, absolutist regime in Spain.
The Spanish Empire in the New World had largely supported the cause of Ferdinand VII over the Bonapartist pretender to the throne in the midst of the Napoleonic Wars. Joseph had promised radical reform, particularly the centralization of the state, which would cost the local authorities in the American empire their autonomy from Madrid. The Spanish Americans, however, did not support absolutism and wanted auto-governance. The juntas in the Americas did not accept the governments of the Europeans, neither the French or Spaniards.
Already in 1810, in South America the Juntas of Caracas and Buenos Aires rejects the Bonapartist government in Spain and sent ambassadors to the United Kingdom. The British blockade against Spain had also moved most of the Latin American colonies out of the Spanish economic sphere and into the British sphere, with whom extensive trade relations were developed. When Ferdinand's rule was restored, these juntas not abandoning their autonomy and rose up against the Spanish Empire. Although Ferdinand was committed to the reconquest of the colonies, along with many of the Continental European powers, Britain and the rest or European countries was ostensibly opposed to the move which would limit her new commercial interests.
The arrival of Spanish European forces to Americas began in 1812. Pablo Morillo arrive in 1815 and was briefly successful in restoring central control over large parts of Venezuela and New Granada. Simón Bolívar, the leader of revolutionary forces in Venezuela and Colombia, was briefly forced into exile in British-controlled Jamaica, and independent Haiti. In 1816, however, Bolívar found enough popular support that he was able to return to South America, and in a daring march from Venezuela to New Granada (Colombia), he defeated Spanish forces at the Battle of Boyacá in 1819, ending Spanish rule in Colombia. Venezuela was liberated June 24, 1821 when Bolívar destroyed the Spanish army on the fields of Carabobo on the Battle of Carabobo. Argentina, with free government from 1810, declared its independence in 1816 (though it had been operating with virtual independence since May Revolution of 1810). Chile was retaken by Spain in 1814, but lost permanently in 1817 when an army under José de San Martín, crossed the Andes Mountains from Argentina to Chile, and went on to defeat Spanish royalist forces at the Battle of Chacabuco in 1817 and Battle of Maipú in 1818.
The Caribbean, New Spain and Viceroyalty of Peru, still remained under Spanish control in 1820. King Ferdinand, however, was dissatisfied with the loss of so much of the Empire and resolved to retake it; a large expedition was assembled in Cadiz with the aim of reconquest. However the army was to create political problems of its own.
A conspiracy of liberal mid-ranking officers in the expedition being outfitted at Cadiz mutinied before they were shipped to the Americas. Led by Rafael del Riego, the conspirators seized their commander and led their army around Andalusia hoping to gather support; garrisons across Spain declared their support for the would-be revolutionaries. Riego and his co-conspirators demanded that the liberal Constitution of 1812 be restored. Before the coup became an outright revolution, King Ferdinand agreed to the demands of the revolutionaries and swore by the constitution. A "Progresista" (liberal) government was appointed, though the king expressed his disaffection with the new administration and constitution.
Three years of liberal rule (the Trienio Liberal) followed. The Progresista government reorganized Spain into 52 provinces, and intended to reduce the regional autonomy that had been a hallmark of Spanish bureaucracy since Habsburg rule in the 16th and 17th centuries. The opposition of the affected regions - in particular, Aragon, Navarre, and Catalonia - shared in the king's antipathy for the liberal government. The anticlerical policies of the Progresista government led to friction with the Roman Catholic Church, and the attempts to bring about industrialization alienated old trade guilds. The Inquisition—which had been abolished by both Joseph Bonaparte and the Cádiz Cortes during the French occupation—was ended again by the Progresista government, summoning up accusations of being nothing more than afrancesados (Francophiles), who only six years before had been forced out of the country. More radical liberals attempted to revolt against the entire idea of a monarchy, constitutional or otherwise, in 1821; these republicans were suppressed, though the incident served to illustrate the frail coalition that bound the Progresista government together.
The election of a radical liberal government in 1823 further destabilized Spain. The army - whose liberal leanings had brought the government to power - began to waver when the Spanish economy failed to improve, and in 1823, a mutiny in Madrid had to be suppressed. The Jesuits (who had been banned by Charles III in the 18th century, only to be rehabilitated by Ferdinand VII after his restoration) were banned again by the radical government. For the duration of liberal rule, King Ferdinand (though technically head of state) lived under virtual house arrest in Madrid.
The Congress of Vienna ending the Napoleonic Wars had inaugurated the "Congress system" as an instrument of international stability in Europe. Rebuffed by the "Holy Alliance" of Russia, Austria, and Prussia in his request for help against the liberal revolutionaries in 1820, by 1822 the "Concert of Europe" was at sufficient unease with Spain's liberal government and its surprising hardiness that they were prepared to intervene on Ferdinand's behalf. In 1822, the Congress of Verona authorized France to intervene. Louis XVIII of France - himself an arch-reactionary - was only too happy to put an end to Spain's liberal experiment, and a massive army - the "100,000 Sons of Saint Louis" - was dispatched across the Pyrenees in April 1823. The Spanish army, fraught by internal divisions, offered little resistance to the well organised French force, who seized Madrid and reinstalled Ferdinand as absolute monarch. The liberals' hopes for a new Spanish War of Independence were not to be fulfilled.
Americas
Although Mexico had been in revolt in 1811 under Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, resistance to Spanish rule had largely been confined to small guerrilla bands in the countryside. The coup in Spain not change the same centralized policies of the government of Trieno Liberal in Madrid and carried many Mexican at disappointment. In 1821, Mexico led by Agustin de Iturbide and Vincente Guerrero presented the Plan de Iguala, calling for an independent Mexican monarchy, in response to the centralism and fears of the liberalism and anticlericalism in Spain. The liberal government of Spain showed less interest in the military reconquest of the colonies than Ferdinand, although rejected the independence of Mexico in the failed Treaty of Córdoba. The last bastion of San Juan de Ulúa resisted to 1825, and from Cuba Isidro Barradas try to recapture Mexico in 1829.
Cacique Mateo Pumacahua in 1814 led the last autonomous revolt in Perú but he was defeated and his revolution disbanded. José de San Martín, who led the liberation Chile, arrive to Peru in 1820 with the Freedom Expedition of Perú. In 1821, the inhabitants of Lima invited him and his soldiers to take the city. The viceroy fled to Cuzco, into the interior of the country. From there he resisted successfully, and it was only with the arrival of Simón Bolívar that the Spanish royalist forces were defeated in 1824 at the battles of Junin and Ayacucho, where the entire Spanish Army of Peru and the Viceroy were captured. The Battle of Ayacucho signified the end of the Spanish Empire on the South American mainland. Antonio José de Sucre leads the independence of Bolivia in 1825 and the last royalst's bastion of el Callao resisted to 1826.
Immediately following the restoration of absolutist rule in Spain, King Ferdinand embarked on a policy intended to restore old conservative values to government; the Jesuit Order and the Spanish Inquisition were reinstated once more, and some autonomy was again devolved to the provinces of Aragon, Navarre, and Catalonia. Although he refused to accept the loss of the American colonies, Ferdinand was prevented from taking any further action against the rebels in the Americas by the opposition of the United Kingdom and the United States, who voiced their support of the new Latin American republics in the form of the Monroe Doctrine. The recent betrayal of the army demonstrated to the king that his own government and soldiers were untrustworthy, and the need for domestic stability proved to be more important than the reconquest of the Empire abroad. As a result, the destinies of Spain and her empire on the American mainland were to permanently take separate paths.
Although in the interests of stability Ferdinand issued a general amnesty to all those involved in the 1820 coup and the liberal government that followed it, the original architect of the coup, Rafael del Riego, was executed. The liberal Partido Progresista, however, continued to exist as a political force, even if it was excluded from actual policy-making by Ferdinand's restored government. Riego himself was hanged, and he would become a martyr for the liberal cause in Spain and would be memorialized in the anthem of the Second Spanish Republic, El Himno de Riego, more than a century later.
The remainder of Ferdinand's reign was spent restoring domestic stability and the integrity of Spain's finances, which had been in ruins since the occupation of the Napoleonic Wars. The end of the wars in the Americas improved the government's financial situation, and by the end of Ferdinand's rule the economic and fiscal situation in Spain was improving. A revolt in Catalonia was crushed in 1827, but at large the period saw an uneasy peace in Spain.
Ferdinand's chief concern after 1823 was how to solve the problem of his own succession. He was married four times in his life, and bore two daughters in all his marriages; the succession law of Philip V of Spain, which still stood in Ferdinand's time, excluded women from the succession. By that law, Ferdinand's successor would be his brother, Carlos. Carlos, however, was a reactionary and an authoritarian who desired the restoration of the traditional moralism of the Spanish state, the elimination of any traces of constitutionalism, and a close relationship with the Roman Catholic Church. Though surely not a liberal, Ferdinand was fearful of Carlos's extremism. War had broken out in neighboring Portugal in 1828 as a result of just such a conflict between reactionary and moderate forces in the royal family - the War of the Two Brothers.
In 1830, at the advice of his wife, Maria Christina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, Ferdinand decreed a Pragmatic Sanction that had the effect of fundamental law in Spain. As a result of the sanction, women were allowed to accede to the Spanish throne, and the succession would fall on Ferdinand's infant daughter, Isabella, rather than to his brother Carlos. Carlos - who disputed the legality of Ferdinand's ability to change the fundamental law of succession in Spain - left the country for Portugal, where he became a guest of Dom Miguel, the absolutist pretender in that country's civil war.
Ferdinand died in 1833, at the age of 49. He was succeeded by his daughter Isabella under the terms of the Pragmatic Sanction, and his wife, Maria Christina, became regent for her daughter, who at that time was only three years of age. Carlos disputed the legitimacy of Maria Christina's regency and the accession of her daughter, and declared himself to be the rightful heir to the Spanish throne. A half-century of civil war and unrest would follow.
After their fall from grace in 1823 at the hands of a French invasion, Spanish liberals had pinned their hopes on Ferdinand VII's wife, Maria Cristina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, who bore some marks as a liberal and a reformer. However, when she became regent for her daughter Isabella in 1833, she made it clear to the court that she intended no such reforms. Even still, an alliance of convenience was formed with the progresista faction at court against the conservatives, who backed the rebel Infante Carlos of Spain.
Carlos, who declared his support for the ancient, pre-Bourbon privileges of the fueros, received considerable support from the Basque country, Aragon, and Catalonia, which valued their ancient privileges from Madrid. The insurrection seemed, at first, a catastrophic failure for the Carlists, who were quickly driven out of most of Aragon and Catalonia, and forced to cling to the uplands of Navarre by the end of 1833. At this crucial moment, however, Carlos named the Basque Tomás de Zumalacárregui, a veteran guerrilla of the Peninsular War, to be his commander-in-chief. Within a matter of months, Zumalacárregui reversed the fortunes of the Carlist cause and drove government forces out of most of Navarre, and launched a campaign into Aragon. By 1835, what was once a band of defeated guerrillas in Navarre had turned into an army of 30,000 in control of all of Spain north of the Ebro River, with the exception of the fortified ports on the northern coast.
The position of the government was growing increasingly desperate. Rumors of a liberal coup to oust Maria Cristina abounded in Madrid, compounding the danger of the Carlist army which was now within striking distance of the capital. Appeals for aid did not fall on deaf ears; France, which had replaced the reactionary monarchy of Charles X with the liberal monarchy of Louis-Philippe in 1830, was sympathetic to the Cristino cause. The Whig governments of Viscount Melbourne were similarly friendly, and organized volunteers and material aid for Spain. Still confident of his successes, however, Don Carlos joined his troops on the battlefield. While Zumalacárregui agitated for a campaign to take Madrid, Carlos ordered his commander to take a port on the coast. In the subsequent campaign, Zumalacárregui died after being shot in the calf. There was suspicion that Carlos, jealous of his general's successes and politics, conspired to have him killed.
Having failed to take Madrid, and having lost their popular general, the Carlist armies began to weaken. Reinforced with British equipment and manpower, Isabella found in the progressista general Baldomero Espartero a man capable of suppressing the rebellion; in 1836, he won a key victory at the Battle of Luchana that turned the tide of the war. After years of vacillation on the issue of reform, events compelled Maria Cristina to accept a new constitution in 1837 that substantively increased the powers of the Spanish parliament, the cortes. The constitution also established state responsibility for the upkeep of the church, and a resurgence of anti-clerical sentiment, led to the disbandment of some religious orders which considerably reduced the strength of the Church in Spain. The Jesuits - expelled during the Trienio Liberal and readmitted by Ferdinand - were once again expelled by the wartime regency in 1835.
The Spanish government was growing deeper in debt as the Carlist war dragged on, nearly to the point that it became insolvent. In 1836, the president of the government, Juan Álvarez Mendizábal, offered a program of desamortización, the Ecclesiastical Confiscations of Mendizábal, that involved the confiscation and sale of church, mainly monastic, property. Many liberals, who bore anti-clerical sentiments, saw the clergy as having allied with the Carlists, and thus the desamortización was only justice. Mendizábal recognized, also, that immense amounts of Spanish land (much of it given as far back as the reigns of Philip II and Philip IV) were in the hands of the church lying unused - the church was Spain's single largest landholder in Mendizábal's time. The Mendizábal government also passed a law guaranteeing freedom of the press.
After Luchana, Espartero's government forces successfully drove the Carlists back northward. Knowing that much of the support for the Carlist cause came from supporters of regional autonomy, Espartero convinced the Queen-Regent to compromise with the fueros on the issue of regional autonomy and retain their loyalty. The subsequent Convention of Vergara in 1839 was a success, protecting the privileges of the fueros and recognizing the defeat of the Carlists. Don Carlos once again went into exile.
Freed from the Carlist threat, Maria Cristina immediately embarked on a campaign to undo the Constitution of 1837, provoking even greater ire from the liberal quarters of her government. Failing in the attempt to overthrow her own constitution, she attempted to undermine the rule of the municipalities in 1840; this proved to be her undoing. She was forced to name the progressista hero of the Carlist War, General Espartero, president of the government. Maria Cristina resigned the regency after Espartero attempted a program of reform.
In the absence of a regent, the cortes named Espartero to that post in May 1841. Although a noted commander, Espartero was inexperienced with politics and his regency was markedly authoritarian; it was arguably Spain's first experience with military rule. The government wrangled with Espartero over the choice of Agustín Argüelles, a radical liberal politician, as the young queen's tutor. From Paris, Maria Cristina railed against the decision and attracted the support of the moderados in the Cortes. The war heroes Manuel de la Concha and Diego de León attempted a coup in September 1841, attempting to seize the queen, only months after Espartero was named regent. The severity with which Espartero crushed the rebellion led to considerable unpopularity; the Cortes, increasingly rebellious against him, selected an old rival, José Ramón Rodil y Campillo, as their chief minister. Another uprising in Barcelona in 1842 against his free trade policies prompted him to bombard the city, serving only to loosen his tenuous grip on power. On 20 May 1843, Salustiano Olózaga delivered his famous "Dios salve al país, Dios salve a la reina!" (God save the country, God save the queen!) speech that led to a strong moderate-liberal coalition that opposed Espartero. This coalition sponsored a third and final uprising led by generals Ramón Narváez and Francisco Serrano, who finally overthrew Espartero in 1843, after which the deposed regent fled to England
Carlos Maria Isidora, Infante of Spain – leader of Carlist cause
Carlist General Tomas de Zumalacarregui , a Basque saved the Carlist cause from brink of disaster
King Ferdinand and Mari
